targeting patrols (i.e., calling out habitual litterers and promoting clean towns) at litter hot spots (with high litter levels) identified in this research will effectively raise anti-litter awareness. 24 Reference: Random Patrols Are Ineffective – Crimes Can Be Predicted (Komiya Nobuo) According to Professor Marcus Felson of Texas State University, each identified area in Los Angeles county (subject to random patrols) is only seen by police officers 15 seconds per day – that is, most areas are unprotected (by police officers) for 99.98% of the day. It used to be conventional wisdom that such random patrols (and unpredictable arrival of officers) contributed to crime prevention. But this was largely discredited in the early 1970s by an analysis of the Kansas City Police Department by George L. Kelling, father of the broken windows theory. In a study of Chicago conducted by Professor Albert Reece of Yale University, 93% of arrests were results of calls from citizen bystanders – on the other hand, patrols by police officers are very unlikely to uncover emergency situations. The best crime prevention method is the problem oriented system, which consists of: geographic focus, varied tactics and good manners. • Geographic focus: Increasing the number of police officers who can patrol does not decrease crime levels, but focusing patrols on high crime areas decreases it. Up to 15 minutes until a police officer’s presence in a hot spot (high crime area), the length of time lapsed until occurrence of crime (after the police officer’s departure from such hot spot) increases (i.e., more effective crime prevention). But, if the police officer is present in such hot spot for longer than 15 minutes, the length of time lapsed until occurrence of crime (after the police officer’s departure) decreases (i.e., less effective crime prevention). Police officers should focus patrols on these hot spots – and this presumably will have a positive effect on crime prevention. Focusing efforts in these areas does not result in the movement of crime in nearby areas. (Professor Anthony A. Braga of Harvard University.) • Varied tactics: Patrols should not simply target on-the-scene arrests. Police officers should also involve third parties that may be involved in crimes to identify the problems of the neighborhood. • Good manners: The more police officers are disrespectful toward suspects and ordinary citizens, the more people are likely to not follow the law.