Fundamentals of 3D Graphics Programming with Metal

This was a half-day workshop delivered as part of the One More Thing conference in Cupertino, CA in the run-up to WWDC 2025. It tries to offer a low-level—but very gentle—introduction to graphics programming via the Metal API, covering the basics of the render pipeline, shader programming, and basic lighting models.

1. Warren Moore One More Thing Conference June 7, 2025 3D Graphics Programming with Metal bit.ly/metal-omt
2. Welcome! Grab the sample code and follow along! bit.ly/metal-omt https://github.com/metal-by-example/omt-2025 2
4. Today’s Agenda From Zero to 3D Part One: Metal and the Rendering Pipeline Q&A, Break Part Two: Into the Third Dimension Q&A, Break Part Three: Turn on the Lights Conclusion, Q&A 4
5. Detailed agenda Part One: Metal and the render pipeline Clearing the canvas The render pipeline Data on the GPU A fi rst look at shaders Hello, triangle! 5
6. Detailed agenda Part Two: Into the third dimension 6 Working with 3D assets Coordinate spaces Transforms Texture mapping The depth bu ff er
7. Detailed agenda Part Three: Turn on the Lights Directional lights Shading models—Di ff use Shading models—Specular 7
8. Part One Metal and the render pipeline 8
9. Devices MTLDevice protocol • Check capabilities • Allocate resources • Create command queues 9
10. Exercise: Exploring devices 10
11. MTKView Provided by MetalKit Delegates drawing responsibilities Bridges to SwiftUI via UIViewRepresentable 11
12. MTKView Making a SwiftUI Metal view 12 struct MetalView : UIViewRepresentable { typealias UIViewType = MTKView func makeUIView(context: Context) -> MTKView { return MTKView() } func updateUIView(_ view: MTKView, context: Context) { } }
13. MTKView Making a SwiftUI Metal view 13 struct MetalView : UIViewRepresentable { typealias UIViewType = MTKView var delegate: RenderDelegate? init(delegate: RenderDelegate) { self.delegate = delegate } func makeUIView(context: Context) -> MTKView { return MTKView() } func updateUIView(_ view: MTKView, context: Context) { delegate?.configure(view) } }
14. MTKView Delegate protocols 14 protocol MTKViewDelegate { func mtkView(_ view: MTKView, drawableSizeWillChange size: CGSize) func draw(in view: MTKView) } protocol RenderDelegate : MTKViewDelegate { func configure(_ view: MTKView) }
15. A simple render delegate Initialization 15 class SolidColorRenderer : NSObject, RenderDelegate { let device: MTLDevice let commandQueue: MTLCommandQueue override init() { device = MTLCreateSystemDefaultDevice()! commandQueue = device.makeCommandQueue()! super.init() } …
16. A simple render delegate View con fi guration 16 class SolidColorRenderer { … func configure(_ view: MTKView) { view.device = device view.colorPixelFormat = .bgra8Unorm_srgb view.clearColor = MTLClearColor(red: 0.0, green: 0.5, blue: 1.0, alpha: 1.0) view.delegate = self } …
17. Command submission 17 Command Bu ff er Command Bu ff er Committed … Command Encoder API Calls GPU Commands Command Queue
18. Command submission Summary Batch commands into command bu ff ers Encode commands with command encoders Submit via a command queue 18
19. Presentation Submit content for compositing by the system If you don’t, you won’t see anything! 19
20. The draw method 20 class SolidColorRenderer { … func draw(in view: MTKView) { guard let descriptor = view.currentRenderPassDescriptor else { return } let commandBuffer = commandQueue.makeCommandBuffer()! let renderEncoder = commandBuffer.makeRenderCommandEncoder(descriptor: descriptor)! renderEncoder.endEncoding() commandBuffer.present(view.currentDrawable!) commandBuffer.commit() } }
21. Exercise: Clearing the canvas 21
22. Clearing the canvas Create an MTKView Set its clear color Tell Metal to clear it 22
23. Clearing the canvas Detailed steps Open the MetalFundamentals project in Xcode Select the “Clear Screen” scheme Navigate to the ClearScreenApp.swift fi le Add code to the draw(in:) method that: • retrieves the current render pass descriptor • creates a render command encoder • ends encoding on the render command encoder • presents the current drawable 23
24. Hello, triangle! A look ahead 24
25. Data on the GPU A humble triangle 25 let positions: [SIMD2<Float>] = [ [ 0.0, 0.5], [-0.8, -0.5], [ 0.8, -0.5], ] let colors: [SIMD3<Float>] = [ [0.822, 0.058, 0.032], [0.108, 0.532, 0.111], [0.080, 0.383, 0.740], ]
26. Data on the GPU Copying to MTLBu ff ers 26 let positionBuffer = positions.withUnsafeBytes { ptr in return device.makeBuffer(bytes: ptr.baseAddress!, length: MemoryLayout<SIMD2<Float>>.stride * ptr.count) } let colorBuffer = colors.withUnsafeBytes { ptr in return device.makeBuffer(bytes: ptr.baseAddress!, length: MemoryLayout<SIMD3<Float>>.stride * ptr.count) }
27. Data on the GPU A look ahead at textures 27 Commonly store images Have a fi xed size and layout (“pixel format”) Can be used to add surface detail (Part 2!) Can also be used as render targets
28. The render pipeline 28 Rasterization Vertex Processing Fragment Processing
29. The render pipeline Vertex processing Gather vertex inputs (from bu ff ers) Calculate vertex positions and attributes (vertex shader) Connect vertices into primitives (e.g. triangles) 29
30. The render pipeline Rasterization Determines which pixels are covered by each primitive Interpolates vertex attributes → fragment attributes 30
31. The render pipeline Fragment processing Determine fragment color/opacity Write to color bu ff er and depth bu ff er 31
32. The render pipeline Programmable stages 32 Rasterization Vertex Function Fragment Function Your code here Your code here
33. Shaders Small programs that run on the GPU One work item (vertex, fragment) per invocation Written in Metal Shading Language (MSL) 33
34. Shaders Anatomy of a vertex function 34 struct VertexOut { float4 position [[position]]; float4 color; }; [[vertex]] VertexOut triangle_vertex(device float2 const *positions [[buffer(0)]], device float3 const *colors [[buffer(1)]], uint vid [[vertex_id]]) { VertexOut out{}; out.position = float4(positions[vid], 0.0f, 1.0f); out.color = float4(colors[vid], 1.0f); return out; } MSL
35. Shaders Anatomy of a vertex function 35 struct VertexOut { float4 position [[position]]; float4 color; }; [[vertex]] VertexOut triangle_vertex(device float2 const *positions [[buffer(0)]], device float3 const *colors [[buffer(1)]], uint vid [[vertex_id]]) { VertexOut out{}; out.position = float4(positions[vid], 0.0f, 1.0f); out.color = float4(colors[vid], 1.0f); return out; } address space quali fi er data type parameter name binding attribute MSL
36. Shaders Anatomy of a vertex function 36 struct VertexOut { float4 position [[position]]; float4 color; }; [[vertex]] VertexOut triangle_vertex(device float2 const *positions [[buffer(0)]], device float3 const *colors [[buffer(1)]], uint vid [[vertex_id]]) { VertexOut out{}; out.position = float4(positions[vid], 0.0f, 1.0f); out.color = float4(colors[vid], 1.0f); return out; } MSL
37. Shaders Anatomy of a vertex function 37 struct VertexOut { float4 position [[position]]; float4 color; }; [[vertex]] VertexOut triangle_vertex(device float2 const *positions [[buffer(0)]], device float3 const *colors [[buffer(1)]], uint vid [[vertex_id]]) { VertexOut out{}; out.position = float4(positions[vid], 0.0f, 1.0f); out.color = float4(colors[vid], 1.0f); return out; } MSL
38. Shaders A basic fragment function 38 [[fragment]] float4 triangle_fragment(VertexOut in [[stage_in]]) { return in.color; } MSL
39. Libraries Compiled from .metal fi les Can contain any number of functions Functions are (further) compiled into pipeline states 39
40. Libraries API 40 let library: MTLLibrary = device.makeDefaultLibrary() let function: MTLFunction = library.makeFunction(name: "triangle_vertex")
41. Render pipeline states Combine shader functions and other state Expensive to create, cheap to switch 41
42. Render pipeline states API 42 let descriptor = MTLRenderPipelineDescriptor() descriptor.colorAttachments[0].pixelFormat = .bgra8Unorm_srgb descriptor.vertexFunction = vertexFunction descriptor.fragmentFunction = fragmentFunction
43. Render pipeline states API 43 let pipelineState = try device.makeRenderPipelineState(descriptor: descriptor)
44. Preparing to draw Create command bu ff er Create command encoder Bind render pipeline state Bind resources 44
45. Preparing to draw Setting the render pipeline state: API 45 renderEncoder.setRenderPipelineState(pipelineState)
46. Preparing to draw Binding: the argument table 46 Argument Tables Buffer 0 Buffer 1 … Buffers Texture 0 Texture 1 … Textures Sampler 0 Sampler 1 … Samplers
47. Preparing to draw Binding API 47 renderEncoder.setVertexBuffer(positionBuffer, offset: 0, index: 0) renderEncoder.setVertexBuffer(colorBuffer, offset: 0, index: 1)
48. Draw calls API 48 // Draw one triangle renderEncoder.drawPrimitives(type: .triangle, vertexStart: 0, vertexCount: 3)
49. Exercise: Hello, triangle! 49
50. Hello, triangle Detailed steps Select the “Hello Triangle” scheme Navigate to the HelloTriangleApp.swift fi le Add code to the draw(in:) method that: • sets the render pipeline • binds the vertex bu ff ers • issues one draw call 50
51. End Part One Q&A 51
52. Part Two Into the third dimension 52
53. Into the third dimension Agenda Working with 3D assets Coordinate spaces Transforms Texture mapping The depth bu ff er 53
54. Working with 3D Assets What is an asset? A fi le (or collection of fi les) containing • Geometry (meshes, point clouds, curves…) • Materials • Lights & cameras • Animations • Hierarchy 54
55. Blender 55
56. What is USD? USD = Universal Scene Description • A composable, extensible scene description format/ecosystem • Initially developed by Pixar • USDZ jointly developed with Apple • Open-source tools (including usdview) 56
57. 57 usdview
58. What’s in a mesh? Vertex attributes visualized 58 + + = positions normals texture coordinates mesh
59. Vertex descriptors Bu ff ers contain bytes, not objects How do we know what’s in a vertex bu ff er? Vertex descriptors! • Attributes describe the where and what • Layouts describe the distance (“stride”) between instances 59
60. Vertex descriptors Interleaved layout 60 x y z nx ny nz u v x y z nx ny nz u v … x y z nx ny nz … bu ff er 0 position normal tex. coords vertex 0 vertex 1 stride
61. position (attribute 0) normal (attribute 1) tex. coords. (attribute 2) vertex buffer (layout 0) Vertex descriptors API 61 let descriptor = MTLVertexDescriptor() descriptor.layouts[0].stride = 32 descriptor.attributes[0].format = .float3 descriptor.attributes[0].offset = 0 descriptor.attributes[0].bufferIndex = 0 descriptor.attributes[1].format = .float3 descriptor.attributes[1].offset = 12 descriptor.attributes[1].bufferIndex = 0 descriptor.attributes[2].format = .float2 descriptor.attributes[2].offset = 24 descriptor.attributes[2].bufferIndex = 0
62. Adopting vertex descriptors Render pipeline changes let renderPipelineDescriptor = MTLRenderPipelineDescriptor() renderPipelineDescriptor.vertexDescriptor = vertexDescriptor renderPipelineDescriptor.vertexFunction = vertexFunction renderPipelineDescriptor.fragmentFunction = fragmentFunction // … 62
63. Adopting vertex descriptors Shader code changes struct VertexIn { float3 position [[attribute(0)]]; float3 normal [[attribute(1)]]; float2 texCoords [[attribute(2)]]; }; Add a vertex input structure: [[vertex]] VertexOut basic_model_vertex(VertexIn in [[stage_in]], …) Add a vertex input structure: 63 MSL
64. Loading assets Model I/O Framework Loads numerous formats (including USD) Produces a hierarchy of MDLObjects • MDLMesh • MDLMaterial • MDLTexture • MDLCamera • MDLLight 64 Asset Mesh Material Light Camera Submesh
65. Designing a basic model type Essential features: • Hold one or more vertex bu ff ers • Hold one or more indexed submeshes • Hold one or more materials 65
66. Designing a basic model type The MTKMesh API 66 class MTKMeshBuffer { var buffer: MTLBuffer var offset: Int } class MTKSubmesh { var primitiveType: MTLPrimitiveType var indexType: MTLIndexType var indexBuffer: MTKMeshBuffer var indexCount: Int } class MTKMesh { var vertexBuffers: [MTKMeshBuffer] var vertexDescriptor: MDLVertexDescriptor var submeshes: [MTKSubmesh] }
67. Designing a basic model type 67 class BasicMaterial { var baseColorTexture: MTLTexture? } class BasicModel { var mesh: MTKMesh var materials: [BasicMaterial] var modelMatrix: simd_float4x4 = matrix_identity_float4x4 init(mesh: MTKMesh, materials: [BasicMaterial]) { self.mesh = mesh self.materials = materials } } MTKMesh is a good start. Let’s add some materials and a transform:
68. Transformations Fundamental operations 68 translation rotation scaling
69. Transformations Model transforms TRS = a combination of scaling, rotation, and translation Can be represented by a single matrix: Called a “model” or “modeling” transform M = T × R × S 69
70. Transformations Spatial API 70 let transform = AffineTransform3D(scale: Size3D(vector: scaleFactors), rotation: Rotation3D(orientation), translation: Vector3D(vector: position)) Abstraction for spatial operations Interoperates with SIMD types (simd_float4x4, etc.) let matrix = simd_float4x4(transform)
71. Transformations World space Each object has a transform The shared space they inhabit is called world space 71 world origin object object
72. Coordinate spaces From world space to view space 72 objects and camera in world space objects in view space view frustum
73. Coordinate spaces The view transform 73 The camera is an object with a special role: It is our point of view. World space is transformed into view space via the view transform The view matrix is the inverse of the camera’s model matrix V = M−1 camera
74. Coordinate spaces Projection 74 To introduce perspective, we use a matrix P that: • Scales the view frustum to a half-cube shape • Sets up the perspective divide for foreshortening (0, 0, 0) (w, w, w) (-w, -w, 0) clip space
75. A simple camera 75 class Camera { var position: SIMD3<Double> var orientation: simd_quatd var transform: simd_float4x4 { … } func viewMatrix() -> simd_float4x4 { return transform.inverse } func projectionMatrix(aspectRatio: Double) -> simd_float4x4 { … } }
76. Coordinate spaces Summary 76 Model Space World Space View Space Clip Space NDC Viewport Space Model Transform View Transform Projection Transform Perspective Divide Viewport Transform
77. Uniform data Sending constants to shaders 77 Need other things besides vertex data: • Transform matrices • Camera parameters • Lights • Material parameters
78. Uniform data De fi ning shader structures 78 struct ShaderConstants { var modelMatrix: simd_float4x4 var viewMatrix: simd_float4x4 var projectionMatrix: simd_float4x4 }
79. Uniform data Binding small constants 79 var constants = ShaderConstants(...) renderEncoder.setVertexBytes(&constants, length: MemoryLayout<ShaderConstants>.size, index: 8)
80. Exercise: Drawing in 3D ( fi rst attempt) 80
81. Drawing in 3D Detailed steps Select the “Hello3D” scheme Navigate to the Hello3DApp.swift fi le Add code to the draw(in:) method that: • binds transform constants Add code to the vertex shader that: • combines the model, view, and projection matrices • produces a clip-space vertex position 81
82. Texture mapping 82 Assign each vertex a set of (u, v) coordinates Store fi ne-grained data in textures Sampled color becomes surface color (or other parameter)
83. Texture sampling API Supports a large variety of image formats Interoperates with Model I/O: let options: [MTKTextureLoader.Option : Any] = [ .generateMipmaps : true, .textureStorageMode : MTLStorageMode.private.rawValue ] let texture = try textureLoader.newTexture(texture: mdlTexture, options: options) 83
84. Texture samplers Samplers are resources (like bu ff ers and textures) Control how textures are tiled (or not) Control how magni fi cation/mini fi cation are treated repeat mirrored repeat clamp to edge clamp to border image credit: https://open.gl/textures 84
85. Texture samplers API let descriptor = MTLSamplerDescriptor() descriptor.sAddressMode = .repeat descriptor.tAddressMode = .repeat descriptor.minFilter = .nearest descriptor.magFilter = .linear let samplerState = device.makeSamplerState(descriptor: descriptor) 85
86. Exercise: Drawing in 3D (second try) 86
87. Drawing in 3D Detailed steps Add code to the draw(in:) method that: • binds fragment resources (texture and sampler) Add code to the fragment shader that: • samples from the base color texture • returns the texture color rather than a solid color 87
88. The reason for the depth bu ff er The painter’s algorithm Triangles are rendered in the order given Correct ordering 㱺 sorting back-to-front Still some ambiguous cases 88
89. The depth bu ff er A solution Store a depth value for each pixel Perform a depth test Only replace surfaces that are farther away 89 depth values darker = closer
90. Depth bu ff ering in Metal API Con fi gure depth bu ff er pixel format on MTKView and render pipeline state: 90 renderPipelineDescriptor.depthAttachmentPixelFormat = .depth32Float view.depthStencilPixelFormat = .depth32Float
91. Depth-stencil states API Control the comparison function and the e ff ect of depth bu ff ering 91 let depthDescriptor = MTLDepthStencilDescriptor() depthDescriptor.depthCompareFunction = .less depthDescriptor.isDepthWriteEnabled = true let depthState = device.makeDepthStencilState(descriptor: depthDescriptor)
92. Exercise: Drawing in 3D (at last!) 92
93. Drawing in 3D Detailed steps Add code to the draw(in:) method that: • binds the depth-stencil state 93
94. Part Three Turn on the lights! 94
95. Turn on the lights Agenda Directional lights Shading models—Di ff use Shading models—Specular 95
96. Directional lights Simpli fi ed model of light arriving from a distant source • All light rays arrive along a single direction • No energy loss due to distance • Single color/intensity 96
97. Sharing structures Between Swift and shaders 97 Redundancy between Swift and shader code → bugs 🐞 Solution: Shared headers • Move shader structures to a C header (ShaderStructures.h) • Add an Objective-C bridging header • #include the shared header
98. Sharing structures An example—Lights 98 #include <simd/simd.h> typedef struct Light { simd_float3 direction; simd_float3 color; } Light; #define MAX_LIGHT_COUNT 8 struct LightingConstants { Light lights[MAX_LIGHT_COUNT]; unsigned int activeLightCount; }; struct Light { var direction: SIMD3<Float> var color: SIMD3<Float> } struct LightingConstants { var lights: (Light, Light, …) var activeLightCount: UInt32 }
99. Shading models 99 Total surface re fl ection consists of several parts: • ambient: Indirect light that has bounced o ff the environment • di ff use: Direct light that re fl ects evenly in all directions • specular: Direct light that re fl ects along a speci fi c direction ambient + di ff use + specular = total
100. Shading models 100 Normals in the vertex function [[vertex]] VertexOut lit_model_vertex(VertexIn in [[stage_in]], constant FrameConstants &frame [[buffer(8)]], constant InstanceConstants &instance [[buffer(9)]]) { float4 worldPosition = instance.modelMatrix * float4(in.position, 1.0f); float3 worldNormal = instance.normalMatrix * in.normal; float4x4 viewProjectionMatrix = frame.projectionMatrix * frame.viewMatrix; float4 clipPosition = viewProjectionMatrix * worldPosition; VertexOut out; out.position = clipPosition; out.normal = worldNormal; out.texCoords = in.texCoords; return out; } MSL
101. Di ff use illumination Lambert’s Cosine Law 101 Re fl ected light is proportional to incoming light The proportion is the cosine of the angle (θ) between: • the surface normal, N, and • the direction to the light, L Simpli fi ed by using the dot product: cos θ = ̂ N ⋅ ̂ L ̂ N ̂ L θ
102. Di ff use illumination Algorithm 102 To fi nd the total outgoing light from a surface point: For each light, calculate its di ff use contribution, by multiplying the surface color, the light intensity, and the Lambert cosine factor.
103. Di ff use illumination Di ff use lighting loop 103 float3 N = normalize(in.normal); float3 litColor {}; for (uint i = 0; i < lighting.activeLightCount; ++i) { Light light = lighting.lights[i]; float3 L = normalize(-light.direction); litColor += diffuseColor * light.color * saturate(dot(N, L)); } MSL
104. Specular illumination The Phong model 104 Smooth surfaces aren’t di ff use re fl ectors They have bright spots: specular highlights Re fl ection proportional to angle between • the viewing direction, V, and • the re fl ected light direction R, • raised to some “specular exponent” ̂ N ̂ L ̂ R θ ̂ V
105. Specular illumination Specular lighting loop 105 float3 litColor {}; for (uint i = 0; i < lighting.activeLightCount; ++i) { Light light = lighting.lights[lightIndex]; float3 V = normalize(float3(frame.cameraPosition - in.worldPosition)); float3 R = reflect(-L, N); float RdotV = saturate(dot(R, V)); litColor += specularColor * light.color * powr(RdotV, material.shininess); } MSL
106. Exercise: Turn on the lights! 106
107. Turn on the lights Detailed steps Select the Lighting scheme Navigate to Shaders.metal Add code to the fragment function that, for each light: • adds the di ff use contribution • adds the specular contribution 107
108. Conclusion The path ahead 108
109. Conclusion Q&A 109