World Brain Claude Sammut School of Computer Science and Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
[email protected] Keywords: Turing, Machine Learning Received: December 17, 2012 Machine learning research can be thought of as building two different types of entities: Turing’s Child Machine and H.G. Wells’ World Brain. The former is a machine that learns incrementally by receiving instruction from a trainer or by its own trial-and-error. The latter is a permanent repository that makes all human knowledge accessible to anyone in the world. While machine learning began following the Child Machine model, recent research has been more focussed on “organising the world’s knowledge” Povzetek: Raziskovanje strojnega uˇ cenja je predstavljeno skozi dve paradigmi: Turingov Child Machine in H.G. Wellsov World Brain. 1 Encountering Alan Turing through Donald Michie My most immediate knowledge of Alan Turing is through many entertaining and informative conversations with Don- ald Michie. As a young man, barely out of school, Donald went to work at Bletchley Park as a code breaker. He be- came Alan Turing’s chess partner because they both en- joyed playing but neither was in the same league as the other excellent players at Bletchley. Possessing similar mediocre abilities, they were a good match for each other. This was fortunate for young Donald because, when not playing chess, he learned much from Turing about compu- tation and intelligence. AlthoughTuring’s investigation of machine intelligence was cut short by his tragic death, Don- ald continued his legacy. After an extraordinarily success- ful career in genetics, Donald founded the first AI group in Britain and made Edinburgh one of the top laboratories in the world, and, through a shared interest in chess with Ivan Bratko, established a connection with Slovenian AI. I first met Donald when I was as a visiting assistant pro- fessor at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, working with Ryszard Michalski. Much of the team that Donald had assembled in Edinburgh had dispersed as a result of the Lighthill report. This was a misguided and damning report on machine intelligence research in the UK. Following the release of the report, Donald was given the choice of either teaching or finding his own means of funding himself. He chose the latter. Part of his strategy was to spend a semester each year at Illinois, at Michal- ski’s invitation, because the university was trying to build up its research in AI at that time. The topic of a seminar that Donald gave in 1983 was “Artificial Intelligence: The first 2,400 years". He traced the history of ideas that lead to the current state of AI, dating back to Aristotle. Of course, Alan Turing played a prominent role in that story. His 1950 Mind paper [1] is rightly remembered as a landmark in the history AI and famously describes the imitation game. However, Donald always lamented that the final section of the paper was largely ignored even though, in his opinion, that was the most important part. In it, Turing suggested that to build a computer system capable of achieving the level of intelligence required to pass the imitation game, it would have to be educated, much like a human child. Instead of trying to produce a programme to sim- ulate the adult mind, why not rather try to pro- duce one which simulates the child’s? If this were then subjected to an appropriate course of education one would obtain the adult brain. Pre- sumably the child-brain is something like a note- book as one buys from the stationers. Rather lit- tle mechanism, and lots of blank sheets... Our hope is that there is so little mechanism in the child-brain that something like it can be easily programmed. The amount of work in the educa- tion we can assume, as a first approximation, to be much the same as for the human child. He went on to speculate about the kinds of learning mechanisms needed for the child machine’s training. The style of learning was always incremental. That is, the ma- chine acquires knowledge by being told or by its own ex- ploration and this knowledge accumulates so that it can learn increasingly complex concepts and solve increasingly complex problems. Early efforts in Machine Learning adopted this paradigm. For example, the Michie and Chambers [2] BOXES program learned to balance a pole and cart sys- tem by trial-and-error receiving punishments are rewards, much as Turing described, and like subsequent reinforce- ment learning systems. My own efforts, much later, with the Marvin program [3] were directed towards building a system that could accumulate learn and accumulate con- cepts expressed in a form of first order logic. More recent Alan Turing & The Child Machine Personal Computer for Children of All Ages (Alan Kay) Twenty things to do with a Computer (Seymour Papert & Cynthia Solomon) 1950s 1970s 1970s
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